Biopsychological Analysis of Schizophrenia In this assignment, please synthesize an overview of the major theories relating to the pathology of schizophrenia, as well as provide a detailed discussion
8 Schizophrenia Name University Course Professor November 22, 2021 Schizophrenia Affecting approximately one percent of the population across the world, schizophrenia is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD) characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and mental processes, social isolation, and inconsistencies in behavior (Wilson, 2013). To understand schizophrenia, one must first understand neurobiology. Neurobiology is the study of the nervous system and how it influences behavior. Neurology is instrumental in the understanding of neurodevelopmental disorders. Hence, schizophrenia being a type of NDD, can apply the neurobiological theory. Kim (2016) concurs that neurobiological theory helps understand the cause, treatment, mechanism, and results of schizophrenia. This paper seeks to: 1) Explain theories of etiology of schizophrenia, 2) examine the factors causing the disorder, and 3) explain the disease pattern associated with schizophrenia. Lastly, the paper will discuss the various treatment methods and technologies while factoring in the neurobiological aspects of the methods. Theories of Etiology of Schizophrenia Kim (2016) explains the causes of schizophrenia using the neurobiological theory, the neurodevelopmental theory, and the genetic theory. The main theory of emphasis to the paper is the neurobiological theory. From a neurobiological approach, NDD occurs when neurotransmitters start to malfunction. If there is a mismatch in the production of serotonin, glutamate, and dopamine in the nervous system, the patient may have a dysfunctional brain. This theory explains the onset of this disorder from the point where the neurotransmitters are dysfunctional. Tang et al. (2021) put out that the neurotransmitters may have excess dopamine, less glutamate, expression of high levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), or low serotonin levels. Therefore, they hinder proper brain function. Secondly, the genetic theory explains the presence of genes that influence the risk of NDD. Several epidemiological studies reported that some genes are associated with different types of NDDs (Rosella and Vetri, 2021). Moreover, genetic studies confirm the possibility of genes that influence NDD when siblings are born with NDD from parents suffering from NDD. Kim (2016) concurs through hereditary reports from schizophrenia that siblings exhibit an estimate of eighty percent chances of having schizophrenia if the parents suffer from schizophrenia. Thirdly, the neurodevelopmental theory associates the risk of NDD to adverse environmental exposure, exposure to pathogens, or linkage to lifestyle patterns. Factors that Cause the Disorder Schizophrenia occurs due to several factors. One, an individual’s genetically enhances the risk of NDD. Research studies show that genes are associated with neurodevelopmental disorder development (Tang et al., 2021). Here, genetic theories explain the involvement of catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) and neuregulin one genes in the development of autism schizophrenia (Kim, 2016). Two, the NDD’s may occur along family lines. Therefore, when someone in the family line suffers from NDD, another person is born with NDD. In addition, NDD may develop from human interactions within the life complexities. D’Souza and Karmiloff-Smith (2017), through their study of the neuroconstructivist developmental approach process, posit that the human brain undergoes changes when brain regions process different types of inputs. As a result, the brain gets injuries that impair its cognitive functions. In this sense, when the individual is in a war zone, the explosive sounds damage their brains, increasing the chances of developing NDD’s. Moreover, lifestyle choices such as abuse of drugs influence the risk of the infant developing NDD. Lastly, environmental factors may influence the risk of NDD’s, especially during birth. Therefore, exposure of pregnant mothers to chemicals influences the risk of NDD. D’Souza and Karmiloff-Smith (2017) emphasize the need for pregnant women to avoid contact with toxic environmental chemicals that affect the nervous system, such as lead and pesticides, since they increase the chances of NDD’s on the baby. Pathology and Abnormalities of the Disorder A patient who has schizophrenia may experience a variety of different disease patterns. Patients with severe cases suffer hallucinations due to inconsistent neurotransmitters. Moreover, high-risk patients are associated with several abnormalities. The abnormalities occur in the brain structure, physiological functions of the brain, neurochemical balance, or neuropathological aspects of the brain. According to Tang et al. (2021), while reporting etiological findings, those abnormalities involved: less white matter, dysfunctional frontal cortex, malfunction in neuronal and membrane, and improper function of neurotransmitters. On the other hand, the chronic stage involves patients with less severe symptoms. Here, the case may result from slight alterations of neurochemicals or abnormalities associated with the prefrontal cortex. Treatment Options Based on Neurobiological Aspect The pharmacological approach involves the practical application of antipsychotics helps with the regulation of the dysfunctional neurotransmitters. For example, the use of Clozapine antipsychotic helps regulate serotonin and dopamine (Tang et al., 2021). Moreover, Clozapine reduces hallucinations while providing lower levels of side effects. Alternatively, the patient may undertake behavioral health programs. Here, the therapist administers an antipsychotic drug then takes the patient through sessions while monitoring changes in behavior (Rosella & Vetri, 2021). One example is undertaking therapy sessions to help patients learn to manage their behavior control techniques. Diagnostic and Research Technologies Employed For effective treatment methods, the doctor may recommend medication and non-drug treatment methods. First, drug treatment methods involve antipsychotic drugs (Tang et al., 2021). Alternatively, non-drug treatments involve diagnostic programs, therapy programs, and behavioral programs. Diagnostic programs are thorough and involving. In this approach, the patient needs to be aware of various steps in the diagnostic procedure, including possible side effects. If the patient and the family agree, they are given the most applicable antipsychotic followed by psychoeducation programs to help them manage the medication. Some technological advancements to cure NDD involve brain imaging. Brain imaging procedures help to evaluate the brain state. In this sense, brain imaging on the patient will help the caregiver assess the brain’s progress. Lastly, monitoring the patient’s progress by the caregiver while noting the side effects of the antipsychotic medication helps evaluate the treatment progress. Conclusion The neurobiological theory critically explains the etiology, mechanism, abnormalities, and treatment of schizophrenia. From the theory, clarity is given when defining the disorder. The theory further explains the likely symptoms by showing schizophrenia causes brain damage while disrupting internal chemical functions of the brain. Moreover, the theory scientifically explains the treatment methods and technology, thereby providing an applicable medical treatment guide. Therefore, the theory is significant to the proper explanation of diseases. References D’Souza, H., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 8(1-2). e1398. Kim, M. (2016). Understanding the Etiology and Treatment Approaches of Schizophrenia: Theoretical Perspectives and their Critique. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 6(04), 253. Rosella, M., & Vetri, L. (2021). Embracing the Complexity of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Tang, X., Jaenisch, R., & Sur, M. (2021). The role of GABAergic signaling in neurodevelopmental disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 22(5), 290-307. Wilson, J. F. (2013). Biological basis of behavior. Bridgepoint Education.
Biopsychological Analysis of Schizophrenia In this assignment, please synthesize an overview of the major theories relating to the pathology of schizophrenia, as well as provide a detailed discussion
8 Annotated Bibliography: Schizophrenia Name University Course Professor November 29, 2021 Annotated Bibliography: Schizophrenia Laursen, T.M., Nordentoft, M., & Mortensen P.B. (2016). Excess early mortality in schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2016; 10, 425-438. This study gives a general introduction to schizophrenia. It defines schizophrenia as a mental disorder that is severe and chronic which affects almost 20 million people across the world. According to the study, schizophrenia is characterized by distortion in emotions, language, thinking, perception, behavior, and the sense of self. Some of the common experiences of persons having schizophrenia include hallucinations as well as delusions. Schizophrenia can jeopardize one’s education and occupational performance because of the considerable disability associated with it. People exhibiting schizophrenia are likely to have 2 to 3 times more chances of dying early than the general majority. This is because of preventable physical illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, infections, and metabolic disease. This article provides vast information about schizophrenia, starting from its definition, signs and symptoms, and adverse effects on human beings. The article provides an overview of the disease and provides a broad scope of information about it. Lora, A., Kohn, R., Levav, I., McBain, R., Morris, J., & Saxena, S. (2012). Service availability and utilization and treatment gap for schizophrenic disorders: a survey in 50 low- and middle-income countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90(1), 47–54B. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.089284 This article by the World Health Organization provides complete information on the major causes of schizophrenia. According to the article, the research has not offered clear details on a single factor that causes the disease. The article only provides some of the thoughts that the disease is brought about by the interaction between genes and many environmental factors. Some psychosocial factors may also cause schizophrenia. The article is significant because it provides information that about 70% of individuals who have schizophrenia do not receive proper medication care and attention. About 90% of the population affected by schizophrenia comes from middle- or low-income countries. Inadequate mental treatment, as well as health services, is an important issue. People who have schizophrenia also do not seek medical care compared to the general population. This article will serve as a reference to highlight the disorder and the treatment gaps identified. Correll, C. U., & Howes, O. D. (2021). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 82(5). https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.my20096ah1c This Journal talks about stigma and misconceptions surrounding schizophrenia. This stigma makes it very tough for individuals who exhibit this disorder to acquire help from reliable sources. They get afraid of that which others will say or think of them. The problem is that every person comes with their conclusion of the way schizophrenia looks. This article explains why many people by mistake believe that if individuals are diagnosed with schizophrenia, they appear to be more dangerous or are likely to commit crimes. This is not true. Because if someone had received a diagnosis of schizophrenia does not mean that they become dangerous or struggle with some personality disorder. This article will serve as a reference to highlight the disorder and the misconceptions surrounding schizophrenia. D’Souza, H., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 8(1-2). e1398. This article talks about the medication for schizophrenia. According to this article, the best practice in the treatment of schizophrenia is medication. This is not the only treatment method available, but it is good to put it under the treatment plan. The treatment that is used to treat schizophrenia is very important since it impacts a lot on the brain’s dopamine neurotransmitter. This article enables us to understand the better treatment of schizophrenia to avoid future damages. Kim, M. (2016). Understanding the etiology and treatment approaches of schizophrenia: Theoretical perspectives and their critique. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 6(04), 253. This article talks about therapy as far as schizophrenia is concerned. It describes two types of treatment which include family therapy as well as individual therapy. Individual therapy sessions are crucial in helping individuals with schizophrenia advance their skills, learn how to cope with stress and anxiety, and understand early signs and symptoms. Family therapy will also be the same. The article helps define various treatments needed in caring for schizophrenia patients. Roccella, M., & Vetri, L. (2021). Embracing the complexity of neurodevelopmental disorders. https:// doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111385 This article discusses various responses given by the World Health Organization in response to schizophrenia. This is a matter of global concern which calls for the attention of the World Health Organization. WHO has a body called the Mental Health Gap Action Program (mhGAP), which came to be in 2008, employing evidence-based technical guidance to enlarge services in all the countries, especially in low and middle-income countries. It shows alternative approaches by inter-governmental organizations like World Health Organization in response to schizophrenia. References Correll, C. U., & Howes, O. D. (2021). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 82(5). https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.my20096ah1c D’Souza, H., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 8(1-2). e1398. Kim, M. (2016). Understanding the etiology and treatment approaches of schizophrenia: Theoretical perspectives and their critique. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 6(04), 253. Laursen, T.M., Nordentoft, M., & Mortensen P.B. (2016). Excess early mortality in schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2016;10, 425-438. Lora, A., Kohn, R., Levav, I., McBain, R., Morris, J., & Saxena, S. (2012). Service availability and utilization and treatment gap for schizophrenic disorders: a survey in 50 low- and middle-income countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90(1), 47–54B. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.089284 Roccella, M., & Vetri, L. (2021). Embracing the complexity of neurodevelopmental disorders. https:// doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111385
Biopsychological Analysis of Schizophrenia In this assignment, please synthesize an overview of the major theories relating to the pathology of schizophrenia, as well as provide a detailed discussion
Outline: Schizophrenia Name University Course Professor December 6, 2021 I. Introduction Affecting approximately one percent of the population across the world, schizophrenia is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder, and psychological dysfunction is characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and mental processes, social isolation, and inconsistencies in behavior (Wilson, 2013). Kim (2016) describes schizophrenia as a severe mental disease that affects how a person perceives emotion and expresses realities. Schizophrenia is a neurobiological disorder that forms when the brain structure malfunctions. Diagnostic Criteria Diagnosis of schizophrenia takes place when neurotransmitters undergo alterations. In this sense, inconsistent data from brain imaging reflect irregularities in dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin (Kim, 2016). The signs and symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, inconsistent speech, emotional expression, and unpredictable behavior. Reasons for Choosing Topic I have a friend who was diagnosed with the disease. We would get into arguments now and then. Professionally many patients with irreversible illnesses come to the hospital and may get schizophrenia due to the stress. If in the position, I would like to help patients with terminal illnesses diagnosed with schizophrenia since the condition makes it hard to administer medicine and conduct life-sustaining activities. II. Discussion Detailed Description This condition has various symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, inability to function normally, disorganized thinking, as well as abnormal motor behavior. The disorder occurs worldwide, with its prevalence being 1% globally. In regards to diagnosis, males are likely to be diagnosed with the condition than females, who tend to be detected later in life. In men, the prognosis is worse (Laursen et al., 2016). Also, the condition has various subtypes, including paranoid, catatonic, residual, and disorganized schizophrenia. According to the DSM-5 (2013), “Negative symptoms account for a substantial portion of the morbidity associated with schizophrenia but are less prominent in other psychotic disorders. Two negative symptoms are particularly prominent in schizophrenia: diminished emotional expression and avolition” (para. 8). Natural History of Disorder Description Without treatment, the disorder has some developmental stages. The first stage is prodromal, which is challenging to recognize unless the condition has progressed. The other phase, active, is most visible. Symptoms, including delusions, and hallucinations are visible during this stage. The last phase is referred to as residual, and it describes psychosis mutation such that there are few apparent symptoms. With treatment, the disorder is well managed during the active phase, such that the apparent symptoms disappear as the treatment becomes effective (Correll & Howes, 2021). Diagnosing and Managing Disorder The initial diagnosis of the disorder is primarily concerned with ensuring that symptoms result from the condition and no other factors like drug abuse. A physical exam can be conducted to determine if other related complications are present and do away with other issues causing the symptoms. Screenings and tests can be undertaken to screen for drugs and alcohol to rule them out. Psychiatric evaluation is another approach that focuses on asking the patient questions to know about substance use, moods, and hallucinations. Methods for ongoing management include psychiatric evaluation and conducting screenings and tests. Risk Factors Genetic factors This is the most estimated and most significant to contribute 80% to determine its presence. The probability of a household presenting a circumstance of schizophrenia is bigger if another household member has by now been detected with the illness. The amount the risk raises relies on the kinship degree with the affected member of the family. Lifestyle Risk Factors Some of the lifestyle risk factors of schizophrenia include a family with the disorder history, a dad who is aged and has autoimmune abnormalities system disorder. Drug abuse during early childhood and adolescence and pregnancy or birth complications are also linked to schizophrenia. Environmental Factors Different environmental factors like migration, urbanicity, childhood trauma, cannabis, obstetrical complications, infectious agents, and physiological factors have been related to the risk development of schizophrenia. Other Causes Other schizophrenia causes include biochemical factors. These substances are found in the brain and include substances that cause the disorder. Dopamine is one such substance, and its imbalance can lead to the condition. An individual’s illness genetic predisposition can contribute to the imbalance. Family relationships are one of the theorized causes. There is no evidence supporting that family association can cause the disorder. Still, some individuals who have schizophrenia have sensitivity towards any family tension. Nervous System Structures Schizophrenia affects the brain structure. One of the areas is the prefrontal cortex. Here, a decrease in dopamine in the mesocortical projection leads to symptoms of depression. In addition, schizophrenia is associated with shortening dendritic spines of pyramidal cell neuronal processes. In other cases, the dendrites in the cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes become short. Neurotransmitter(s) and Receptor System(s) Research findings indicate that the etiology of schizophrenia is a result of altered neurotransmitters. In this context, the altered neurotransmitters cause irregularities in dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin production (D’Souza & Karmiloff-Smith, 2017). In this context, the central nervous system experiences changes in dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, glutamatergic, and GABAergic receptor systems. Current Treatment Options Antipsychotic drugs regulate abnormal neurotransmitters. Antipsychotics such as phenothiazines regulate dopamine release by blocking the D2 receptors. As a result, depressive symptoms subside (Lora et al., 2012). Natural or non-pharmacological treatment methods include therapy, communication skills training, and behavioral coaching. Schizophrenia involves several caregivers such as social workers, therapists, nurses, pharmacists, counselors, and psychiatrists. Treatment of schizophrenia starts with treatment from home. Moreover, therapy sessions may take place in the psychiatrists’ office. In case of admission, the patient is taken to the hospital. Future Areas of Research Lumateperone is the latest medication to availed in the market for schizophrenia treatment. This medication is as well known as Caplyta and produced Intra-Cellular Therapies. The FDA approved Lumateperone in 2019 December. Other various amounts of lumateperone have been researched, and it seems that a transitional dosage (42mg) is most actual in decreasing positive signs during an acute aggravation of schizophrenia. Various studies are being conducted across the globe on how to cure schizophrenia. An example is that recent research found that there may be other subtypes of schizophrenia through looking at the brain images. In the future, brain scans and other tools may be utilized to diagnose other types of schizophrenia (Roccella & Vetri, 2021). This will hopefully let individuals who are living with schizophrenia to obtain more personalized medication. Nevertheless, these strategies are still being established. Future studies ought to research the risk factors associated with the developmental pathology of the disorder. This entails finding out the likely causes influencing the disease’s pathology and etiology. III. Conclusion In conclusion, schizophrenia is a severe mental disease that affects how a person perceives emotion and expresses realities. It has various symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, inability to function normally, and disorganized thinking. Different environmental factors like migration, urbanicity, and childhood trauma are risk factors. Schizophrenia affects the brain structure and one of the areas in the prefrontal cortex. Schizophrenia involves several caregivers such as social workers and therapists. The brain and other tools may be utilized to diagnose other types of schizophrenia in the future. References American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). https://dsm-psychiatryonline-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/doi/full/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm02 Correll, C. U., & Howes, O. D. (2021). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 82(5). https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.my20096ah1c D’Souza, H., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 8(1-2). e1398. Kim, M. (2016). Understanding the etiology and treatment approaches of schizophrenia: Theoretical perspectives and their critique. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 6(04), 253. Laursen, T.M., Nordentoft, M., & Mortensen P.B. (2016). Excess early mortality in schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2016; 10, 425-438. Lora, A., Kohn, R., Levav, I., McBain, R., Morris, J., & Saxena, S. (2012). Service availability and utilization and treatment gap for schizophrenic disorders: a survey in 50 low- and middle-income countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90(1), 47–54B. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.089284 Roccella, M., & Vetri, L. (2021). Embracing the complexity of neurodevelopmental disorders. https:// doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111385 Wilson, J. F. (2013). Biological basis of behavior. Bridgepoint Education.
Biopsychological Analysis of Schizophrenia In this assignment, please synthesize an overview of the major theories relating to the pathology of schizophrenia, as well as provide a detailed discussion
8 Schizophrenia Name University Course Professor November 22, 2021 Schizophrenia Affecting approximately one percent of the population across the world, schizophrenia is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD) characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and mental processes, social isolation, and inconsistencies in behavior (Wilson, 2013). To understand schizophrenia, one must first understand neurobiology. Neurobiology is the study of the nervous system and how it influences behavior. Neurology is instrumental in the understanding of neurodevelopmental disorders. Hence, schizophrenia being a type of NDD, can apply the neurobiological theory. Kim (2016) concurs that neurobiological theory helps understand the cause, treatment, mechanism, and results of schizophrenia. This paper seeks to: 1) Explain theories of etiology of schizophrenia, 2) examine the factors causing the disorder, and 3) explain the disease pattern associated with schizophrenia. Lastly, the paper will discuss the various treatment methods and technologies while factoring in the neurobiological aspects of the methods. Theories of Etiology of Schizophrenia Kim (2016) explains the causes of schizophrenia using the neurobiological theory, the neurodevelopmental theory, and the genetic theory. The main theory of emphasis to the paper is the neurobiological theory. From a neurobiological approach, NDD occurs when neurotransmitters start to malfunction. If there is a mismatch in the production of serotonin, glutamate, and dopamine in the nervous system, the patient may have a dysfunctional brain. This theory explains the onset of this disorder from the point where the neurotransmitters are dysfunctional. Tang et al. (2021) put out that the neurotransmitters may have excess dopamine, less glutamate, expression of high levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), or low serotonin levels. Therefore, they hinder proper brain function. Secondly, the genetic theory explains the presence of genes that influence the risk of NDD. Several epidemiological studies reported that some genes are associated with different types of NDDs (Rosella and Vetri, 2021). Moreover, genetic studies confirm the possibility of genes that influence NDD when siblings are born with NDD from parents suffering from NDD. Kim (2016) concurs through hereditary reports from schizophrenia that siblings exhibit an estimate of eighty percent chances of having schizophrenia if the parents suffer from schizophrenia. Thirdly, the neurodevelopmental theory associates the risk of NDD to adverse environmental exposure, exposure to pathogens, or linkage to lifestyle patterns. Factors that Cause the Disorder Schizophrenia occurs due to several factors. One, an individual’s genetically enhances the risk of NDD. Research studies show that genes are associated with neurodevelopmental disorder development (Tang et al., 2021). Here, genetic theories explain the involvement of catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) and neuregulin one genes in the development of autism schizophrenia (Kim, 2016). Two, the NDD’s may occur along family lines. Therefore, when someone in the family line suffers from NDD, another person is born with NDD. In addition, NDD may develop from human interactions within the life complexities. D’Souza and Karmiloff-Smith (2017), through their study of the neuroconstructivist developmental approach process, posit that the human brain undergoes changes when brain regions process different types of inputs. As a result, the brain gets injuries that impair its cognitive functions. In this sense, when the individual is in a war zone, the explosive sounds damage their brains, increasing the chances of developing NDD’s. Moreover, lifestyle choices such as abuse of drugs influence the risk of the infant developing NDD. Lastly, environmental factors may influence the risk of NDD’s, especially during birth. Therefore, exposure of pregnant mothers to chemicals influences the risk of NDD. D’Souza and Karmiloff-Smith (2017) emphasize the need for pregnant women to avoid contact with toxic environmental chemicals that affect the nervous system, such as lead and pesticides, since they increase the chances of NDD’s on the baby. Pathology and Abnormalities of the Disorder A patient who has schizophrenia may experience a variety of different disease patterns. Patients with severe cases suffer hallucinations due to inconsistent neurotransmitters. Moreover, high-risk patients are associated with several abnormalities. The abnormalities occur in the brain structure, physiological functions of the brain, neurochemical balance, or neuropathological aspects of the brain. According to Tang et al. (2021), while reporting etiological findings, those abnormalities involved: less white matter, dysfunctional frontal cortex, malfunction in neuronal and membrane, and improper function of neurotransmitters. On the other hand, the chronic stage involves patients with less severe symptoms. Here, the case may result from slight alterations of neurochemicals or abnormalities associated with the prefrontal cortex. Treatment Options Based on Neurobiological Aspect The pharmacological approach involves the practical application of antipsychotics helps with the regulation of the dysfunctional neurotransmitters. For example, the use of Clozapine antipsychotic helps regulate serotonin and dopamine (Tang et al., 2021). Moreover, Clozapine reduces hallucinations while providing lower levels of side effects. Alternatively, the patient may undertake behavioral health programs. Here, the therapist administers an antipsychotic drug then takes the patient through sessions while monitoring changes in behavior (Rosella & Vetri, 2021). One example is undertaking therapy sessions to help patients learn to manage their behavior control techniques. Diagnostic and Research Technologies Employed For effective treatment methods, the doctor may recommend medication and non-drug treatment methods. First, drug treatment methods involve antipsychotic drugs (Tang et al., 2021). Alternatively, non-drug treatments involve diagnostic programs, therapy programs, and behavioral programs. Diagnostic programs are thorough and involving. In this approach, the patient needs to be aware of various steps in the diagnostic procedure, including possible side effects. If the patient and the family agree, they are given the most applicable antipsychotic followed by psychoeducation programs to help them manage the medication. Some technological advancements to cure NDD involve brain imaging. Brain imaging procedures help to evaluate the brain state. In this sense, brain imaging on the patient will help the caregiver assess the brain’s progress. Lastly, monitoring the patient’s progress by the caregiver while noting the side effects of the antipsychotic medication helps evaluate the treatment progress. Conclusion The neurobiological theory critically explains the etiology, mechanism, abnormalities, and treatment of schizophrenia. From the theory, clarity is given when defining the disorder. The theory further explains the likely symptoms by showing schizophrenia causes brain damage while disrupting internal chemical functions of the brain. Moreover, the theory scientifically explains the treatment methods and technology, thereby providing an applicable medical treatment guide. Therefore, the theory is significant to the proper explanation of diseases. References D’Souza, H., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 8(1-2). e1398. Kim, M. (2016). Understanding the Etiology and Treatment Approaches of Schizophrenia: Theoretical Perspectives and their Critique. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 6(04), 253. Rosella, M., & Vetri, L. (2021). Embracing the Complexity of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Tang, X., Jaenisch, R., & Sur, M. (2021). The role of GABAergic signaling in neurodevelopmental disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 22(5), 290-307. Wilson, J. F. (2013). Biological basis of behavior. Bridgepoint Education.
Biopsychological Analysis of Schizophrenia In this assignment, please synthesize an overview of the major theories relating to the pathology of schizophrenia, as well as provide a detailed discussion
8 Annotated Bibliography: Schizophrenia Name University Course Professor November 29, 2021 Annotated Bibliography: Schizophrenia Laursen, T.M., Nordentoft, M., & Mortensen P.B. (2016). Excess early mortality in schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2016; 10, 425-438. This study gives a general introduction to schizophrenia. It defines schizophrenia as a mental disorder that is severe and chronic which affects almost 20 million people across the world. According to the study, schizophrenia is characterized by distortion in emotions, language, thinking, perception, behavior, and the sense of self. Some of the common experiences of persons having schizophrenia include hallucinations as well as delusions. Schizophrenia can jeopardize one’s education and occupational performance because of the considerable disability associated with it. People exhibiting schizophrenia are likely to have 2 to 3 times more chances of dying early than the general majority. This is because of preventable physical illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, infections, and metabolic disease. This article provides vast information about schizophrenia, starting from its definition, signs and symptoms, and adverse effects on human beings. The article provides an overview of the disease and provides a broad scope of information about it. Lora, A., Kohn, R., Levav, I., McBain, R., Morris, J., & Saxena, S. (2012). Service availability and utilization and treatment gap for schizophrenic disorders: a survey in 50 low- and middle-income countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90(1), 47–54B. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.089284 This article by the World Health Organization provides complete information on the major causes of schizophrenia. According to the article, the research has not offered clear details on a single factor that causes the disease. The article only provides some of the thoughts that the disease is brought about by the interaction between genes and many environmental factors. Some psychosocial factors may also cause schizophrenia. The article is significant because it provides information that about 70% of individuals who have schizophrenia do not receive proper medication care and attention. About 90% of the population affected by schizophrenia comes from middle- or low-income countries. Inadequate mental treatment, as well as health services, is an important issue. People who have schizophrenia also do not seek medical care compared to the general population. This article will serve as a reference to highlight the disorder and the treatment gaps identified. Correll, C. U., & Howes, O. D. (2021). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 82(5). https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.my20096ah1c This Journal talks about stigma and misconceptions surrounding schizophrenia. This stigma makes it very tough for individuals who exhibit this disorder to acquire help from reliable sources. They get afraid of that which others will say or think of them. The problem is that every person comes with their conclusion of the way schizophrenia looks. This article explains why many people by mistake believe that if individuals are diagnosed with schizophrenia, they appear to be more dangerous or are likely to commit crimes. This is not true. Because if someone had received a diagnosis of schizophrenia does not mean that they become dangerous or struggle with some personality disorder. This article will serve as a reference to highlight the disorder and the misconceptions surrounding schizophrenia. D’Souza, H., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 8(1-2). e1398. This article talks about the medication for schizophrenia. According to this article, the best practice in the treatment of schizophrenia is medication. This is not the only treatment method available, but it is good to put it under the treatment plan. The treatment that is used to treat schizophrenia is very important since it impacts a lot on the brain’s dopamine neurotransmitter. This article enables us to understand the better treatment of schizophrenia to avoid future damages. Kim, M. (2016). Understanding the etiology and treatment approaches of schizophrenia: Theoretical perspectives and their critique. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 6(04), 253. This article talks about therapy as far as schizophrenia is concerned. It describes two types of treatment which include family therapy as well as individual therapy. Individual therapy sessions are crucial in helping individuals with schizophrenia advance their skills, learn how to cope with stress and anxiety, and understand early signs and symptoms. Family therapy will also be the same. The article helps define various treatments needed in caring for schizophrenia patients. Roccella, M., & Vetri, L. (2021). Embracing the complexity of neurodevelopmental disorders. https:// doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111385 This article discusses various responses given by the World Health Organization in response to schizophrenia. This is a matter of global concern which calls for the attention of the World Health Organization. WHO has a body called the Mental Health Gap Action Program (mhGAP), which came to be in 2008, employing evidence-based technical guidance to enlarge services in all the countries, especially in low and middle-income countries. It shows alternative approaches by inter-governmental organizations like World Health Organization in response to schizophrenia. References Correll, C. U., & Howes, O. D. (2021). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 82(5). https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.my20096ah1c D’Souza, H., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 8(1-2). e1398. Kim, M. (2016). Understanding the etiology and treatment approaches of schizophrenia: Theoretical perspectives and their critique. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 6(04), 253. Laursen, T.M., Nordentoft, M., & Mortensen P.B. (2016). Excess early mortality in schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2016;10, 425-438. Lora, A., Kohn, R., Levav, I., McBain, R., Morris, J., & Saxena, S. (2012). Service availability and utilization and treatment gap for schizophrenic disorders: a survey in 50 low- and middle-income countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90(1), 47–54B. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.089284 Roccella, M., & Vetri, L. (2021). Embracing the complexity of neurodevelopmental disorders. https:// doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111385
Biopsychological Analysis of Schizophrenia In this assignment, please synthesize an overview of the major theories relating to the pathology of schizophrenia, as well as provide a detailed discussion
Outline: Schizophrenia Name University Course Professor December 6, 2021 I. Introduction Affecting approximately one percent of the population across the world, schizophrenia is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder, and psychological dysfunction is characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and mental processes, social isolation, and inconsistencies in behavior (Wilson, 2013). Kim (2016) describes schizophrenia as a severe mental disease that affects how a person perceives emotion and expresses realities. Schizophrenia is a neurobiological disorder that forms when the brain structure malfunctions. Diagnostic Criteria Diagnosis of schizophrenia takes place when neurotransmitters undergo alterations. In this sense, inconsistent data from brain imaging reflect irregularities in dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin (Kim, 2016). The signs and symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, inconsistent speech, emotional expression, and unpredictable behavior. Reasons for Choosing Topic I have a friend who was diagnosed with the disease. We would get into arguments now and then. Professionally many patients with irreversible illnesses come to the hospital and may get schizophrenia due to the stress. If in the position, I would like to help patients with terminal illnesses diagnosed with schizophrenia since the condition makes it hard to administer medicine and conduct life-sustaining activities. II. Discussion Detailed Description This condition has various symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, inability to function normally, disorganized thinking, as well as abnormal motor behavior. The disorder occurs worldwide, with its prevalence being 1% globally. In regards to diagnosis, males are likely to be diagnosed with the condition than females, who tend to be detected later in life. In men, the prognosis is worse (Laursen et al., 2016). Also, the condition has various subtypes, including paranoid, catatonic, residual, and disorganized schizophrenia. According to the DSM-5 (2013), “Negative symptoms account for a substantial portion of the morbidity associated with schizophrenia but are less prominent in other psychotic disorders. Two negative symptoms are particularly prominent in schizophrenia: diminished emotional expression and avolition” (para. 8). Natural History of Disorder Description Without treatment, the disorder has some developmental stages. The first stage is prodromal, which is challenging to recognize unless the condition has progressed. The other phase, active, is most visible. Symptoms, including delusions, and hallucinations are visible during this stage. The last phase is referred to as residual, and it describes psychosis mutation such that there are few apparent symptoms. With treatment, the disorder is well managed during the active phase, such that the apparent symptoms disappear as the treatment becomes effective (Correll & Howes, 2021). Diagnosing and Managing Disorder The initial diagnosis of the disorder is primarily concerned with ensuring that symptoms result from the condition and no other factors like drug abuse. A physical exam can be conducted to determine if other related complications are present and do away with other issues causing the symptoms. Screenings and tests can be undertaken to screen for drugs and alcohol to rule them out. Psychiatric evaluation is another approach that focuses on asking the patient questions to know about substance use, moods, and hallucinations. Methods for ongoing management include psychiatric evaluation and conducting screenings and tests. Risk Factors Genetic factors This is the most estimated and most significant to contribute 80% to determine its presence. The probability of a household presenting a circumstance of schizophrenia is bigger if another household member has by now been detected with the illness. The amount the risk raises relies on the kinship degree with the affected member of the family. Lifestyle Risk Factors Some of the lifestyle risk factors of schizophrenia include a family with the disorder history, a dad who is aged and has autoimmune abnormalities system disorder. Drug abuse during early childhood and adolescence and pregnancy or birth complications are also linked to schizophrenia. Environmental Factors Different environmental factors like migration, urbanicity, childhood trauma, cannabis, obstetrical complications, infectious agents, and physiological factors have been related to the risk development of schizophrenia. Other Causes Other schizophrenia causes include biochemical factors. These substances are found in the brain and include substances that cause the disorder. Dopamine is one such substance, and its imbalance can lead to the condition. An individual’s illness genetic predisposition can contribute to the imbalance. Family relationships are one of the theorized causes. There is no evidence supporting that family association can cause the disorder. Still, some individuals who have schizophrenia have sensitivity towards any family tension. Nervous System Structures Schizophrenia affects the brain structure. One of the areas is the prefrontal cortex. Here, a decrease in dopamine in the mesocortical projection leads to symptoms of depression. In addition, schizophrenia is associated with shortening dendritic spines of pyramidal cell neuronal processes. In other cases, the dendrites in the cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes become short. Neurotransmitter(s) and Receptor System(s) Research findings indicate that the etiology of schizophrenia is a result of altered neurotransmitters. In this context, the altered neurotransmitters cause irregularities in dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin production (D’Souza & Karmiloff-Smith, 2017). In this context, the central nervous system experiences changes in dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, glutamatergic, and GABAergic receptor systems. Current Treatment Options Antipsychotic drugs regulate abnormal neurotransmitters. Antipsychotics such as phenothiazines regulate dopamine release by blocking the D2 receptors. As a result, depressive symptoms subside (Lora et al., 2012). Natural or non-pharmacological treatment methods include therapy, communication skills training, and behavioral coaching. Schizophrenia involves several caregivers such as social workers, therapists, nurses, pharmacists, counselors, and psychiatrists. Treatment of schizophrenia starts with treatment from home. Moreover, therapy sessions may take place in the psychiatrists’ office. In case of admission, the patient is taken to the hospital. Future Areas of Research Lumateperone is the latest medication to availed in the market for schizophrenia treatment. This medication is as well known as Caplyta and produced Intra-Cellular Therapies. The FDA approved Lumateperone in 2019 December. Other various amounts of lumateperone have been researched, and it seems that a transitional dosage (42mg) is most actual in decreasing positive signs during an acute aggravation of schizophrenia. Various studies are being conducted across the globe on how to cure schizophrenia. An example is that recent research found that there may be other subtypes of schizophrenia through looking at the brain images. In the future, brain scans and other tools may be utilized to diagnose other types of schizophrenia (Roccella & Vetri, 2021). This will hopefully let individuals who are living with schizophrenia to obtain more personalized medication. Nevertheless, these strategies are still being established. Future studies ought to research the risk factors associated with the developmental pathology of the disorder. This entails finding out the likely causes influencing the disease’s pathology and etiology. III. Conclusion In conclusion, schizophrenia is a severe mental disease that affects how a person perceives emotion and expresses realities. It has various symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, inability to function normally, and disorganized thinking. Different environmental factors like migration, urbanicity, and childhood trauma are risk factors. Schizophrenia affects the brain structure and one of the areas in the prefrontal cortex. Schizophrenia involves several caregivers such as social workers and therapists. The brain and other tools may be utilized to diagnose other types of schizophrenia in the future. References American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). https://dsm-psychiatryonline-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/doi/full/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm02 Correll, C. U., & Howes, O. D. (2021). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 82(5). https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.my20096ah1c D’Souza, H., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 8(1-2). e1398. Kim, M. (2016). Understanding the etiology and treatment approaches of schizophrenia: Theoretical perspectives and their critique. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 6(04), 253. Laursen, T.M., Nordentoft, M., & Mortensen P.B. (2016). Excess early mortality in schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2016; 10, 425-438. Lora, A., Kohn, R., Levav, I., McBain, R., Morris, J., & Saxena, S. (2012). Service availability and utilization and treatment gap for schizophrenic disorders: a survey in 50 low- and middle-income countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90(1), 47–54B. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.089284 Roccella, M., & Vetri, L. (2021). Embracing the complexity of neurodevelopmental disorders. https:// doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111385 Wilson, J. F. (2013). Biological basis of behavior. Bridgepoint Education.